9/16 Minutes

Argument via sign/clue
- notion that certain types of evidence are sympotomatic of some wider principle or outcome

Example:
-Where there's smoke, there's fire.
- Students with high SAT scores will do well in college.

Causal Argument
- "X" is the result of, or is affected by the factor "y"- the most complex forms of warrant

Example:
Claim: Needle exchange programs should be abolished.
Grounds: They only cause people to use drugs.
Warrant: More people will engage in risky behavior because you've made it safer.

-Don't mix causation with correlation
-Just because two events have a relationship doesn't necessarily dictate that the relationship is causal.

Example: The growing population of storks as well as the simultaneous population growth of babies does not mean that babies come from storks. The two just happen to occur at the same time but are not directly related.
- If one thing follows another, the first thing must have caused the second.
Example: Baby: "I kicked and got milk, I'll kick again and get more." The baby thinks that by kicking he is getting milk, when in truth, he will get milk when it is time for him to be fed. Kicking has nothing to do with the situation.

Argument from Authority (ETHOS)

- Does person/text "x" constitute an authoritative source on the issue in question?
- What political, idealogical, or economic interests do they have?
- Will a significant number of authorites agree?

Argument from Principle

-Locating a principle that is widely regarded as valid and showing that a situation exists in which this principle apploes
-Evaluation:
~Is it widely accepted?
~Does it apply to the situation?
~Are there commonly agree on exceptions?
~Are there rival principles?
~Are the consequences of the principle desirable?

Second Triad

-Backing
-Qualifier
-Rebuttal

Backing

-Provides additional justification for the warrant especially if the warrant is viewed as questionable

Example:
Claim: You should use a hearing aid.
Grounds: You've been having trouble hearing and over 70% of people over 65 have difficulty hearing
Warrant: Many hearing aid users sau it helps them to hear better
Backing: Hearing aids are conveniently available

The Qualifier

-Arguments are not expected to demonstrate certainties! They can only establish probabilities.
-Claims are qualified to meet objections of an audience
- States how sure the arguer is about its correctness
- Specifies the arguer's self-imposed limits to the claim, warrant, and backing by establishing conditionality.

Examples:
Sometimes
Maybe
Might
Many
Few
Probably
Possibly
Most
Usually
Always
Virtually
-Qualifiers can strengthen or undermind your argument

Example:
Claim: Hearing aids help people hear better.
Claim + Qualifier- Hearing aids help most people hear better

Qualifier Variant

-Reservation-offers the audience recognition of the greater possibility that the claim is incorrect-without saying so.

Example:
Claim: Hearing aids do no harm to ears.
Claim + Reservation: Unless there is no contrary evidence, hearing aids do no harm to ears.

The Rebuttal

-The acknowledges exceptions or limitations to the argument, and admits to those cirumstances or situations where the argument would not hold.
-Answers the question "What are the other possible views on this issue?"

We do not admit error
- Actually we do.
- Academic arguments often include counterarguments to the position being advanced.

-Melissa H.